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Chemical Safety

Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to provide guidance to wildlife responders who use hazardous materials so that they may perform their work safely. Many of these materials are toxic. Many chemicals are relatively non-hazardous by themselves but become dangerous when they interact with other substances, either in planned experiments or by accidental contact.

To avoid injury and/or property damage, persons who handle oiled animals and chemicals in any area of the rehabilitation center must understand the hazardous properties of the chemicals with which they will be working. Before using a specific chemical, safe handling methods must always be reviewed. Supervisors are responsible for ensuring that the equipment needed to work safely with chemicals is provided.

Hazcom Plan

On May 25, 1986 the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) placed in effect the requirements of a new standard called Hazard Communication (29 CFR 1910.120). This standard establishes requirements to ensure that chemical hazards in the workplace are identified and that this information, along with information on protective measures, is transmitted to all affected responders. This includes wildlife responders treating sea otters oiled with Alaska North Slope crude oil, who fall under section 120.(q) (11) (ii) of the standards. Subpart (q) (11) is applicable “Where the clean-up is done on plant property using plant or workplace employees…”. An example of this would be the Sea Otter Rehabilitation Center where oiled otters are received and cleaned by staff in the confines of the facility.

This section describes how workers are informed of the potential chemical hazards in their work area so they can avoid harmful exposures and safeguard their health. Components of this program include labeling, preparing a material safety data sheet (MSDS), and training.

With regard to MSDS, International Wildlife Research has limited coverage under the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard. IWR is required to maintain only those sheets that are received with incoming shipments.

IWR must:

  • Identify hazards for respective work areas.
  • Ensure hazards are properly labeled.
  • Obtain/maintain copies of material safety data sheets, as required, of each hazardous material used in the work area and make them accessible to workers during each work shift.
  • Have the written Hazard Communication Program available to all responders.
  • Provide hazard-specific training for workers.

Wildlife responders must:

  • Attend training meetings.
  • Perform operations in safe manner.
  • Notify management immediately of any safety hazards or injuries.
  • When ordering materials, identify hazardous chemicals.

The number of hazardous chemicals and the number of reactions between them is so large that prior knowledge of all potential hazards cannot be assumed. Therefore, when the chemical properties of a material are not fully known, it should be assumed hazardous and used in as small quantities as possible to minimize exposure and thus reduce the magnitude of unexpected events.

The following general safety precautions should be observed when working with chemicals:

  • Keep the work area clean and orderly.
  • Use the necessary safety equipment.
  • Carefully label every container with the identity of its contents and appropriate hazard warnings.
  • Store incompatible chemicals in separate areas.
  • Substitute less toxic materials whenever possible.
  • Provide means of containing the material if equipment or containers should break or spill their contents.
  • Obtain and read the Material Safety Data Sheets.

The Niosh pocket guide is available to all wildlife responders and can be used to find more specific information on a known chemical. Chemicals are in alphabetical order. Information is provided on chemical composition up and characteristics, trade names, flash point, lower explosive limit (LEL), upper explosive limit (UEL), vapor pressure, health hazards and exposure limits, and first aid.

Properties and Potential Hazards of Petroleum Hydrocarbons

Petroleum is an organic liquid primarily containing hydrocarbons with smaller percentages of sulphur, nitrogen, and oxygen. Trace metals can also be found. The constituents can be vapor, liquid, or solid. The gaseous and volatile liquid fractions make petroleum highly flammable, irritating, and toxic if inhaled. Weathered crude petroleum, subjected to the interaction with water, wind, salt, and air, is not flammable but can be harmful if in prolonged contact with skin. The combination of oil and salt water is particularly harsh on skin. As the petroleum ages, it solidifies and congeals to a mousse consistency. This material adheres to beach rocks and objects, creating a slipping hazard for shoreline workers.

Petrochemical products are composed of aromatic and non-aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons. The chemical composition of each product will determine its toxicity to wildlife and personnel working in the rehabilitation center. Crude oil. diesel fuel, gasoline, and various grades of refined oil are the most common petrochemicals that are spilled. These products can range from light fractions such as gasoline, to heavy ones such as Bunker C. Petroleum products (oil) are not benign substances. Their chemical composition and physical properties pose both health and safety concerns. Benzene and hydrogen sulfide are the two most common hazardous chemicals found in oil.

Usually, the oil on wildlife arriving at the rehabilitation center will be weathered and contain negligible amounts of these volatile components. Nevertheless, the triage and cleaning rooms should have adequate ventilation to prevent the accumulation of petrochemical fumes. Along with wildlife, personnel at the rehabilitation center may be exposed to petroleum hydrocarbons. The primary routes of exposure are inhalation, absorption and ingestion.

1. Inhalation. Petroleum products emit volatile hydrocarbons called vapors or fumes. Their concentration and toxicity vary considerably. It is important to be aware of the hazards associated with vapors. Everyone has different tolerance levels to vapors; some people may show or feel the effects of petroleum vapors faster than others. However, do not let yourself be fooled! You may think the vapors are not affecting you when they are. Never rely on seeing ill effects in others as a warning that petroleum vapor is present. Inhalation of volatile petroleum hydrocarbons can cause respiratory distress, nausea, and dizziness; some of the ill effects of breathing petroleum vapors resemble drunkenness. Persons with these symptoms should notify their supervisor and leave the exposure area. If symptoms persist for more than several hours, the individual should seek medical attention. When suspicious of vapor levels, or if feeling effects of petroleum vapors, contact your supervisor. Remember, the absence of smell does NOT mean the absence of petroleum vapor.

2. Absorption. Direct contact with petroleum hydrocarbons can irritate the skin, especially sensitive areas around the eyes, nose and mouth. Injection as the direct result of a puncture wound can also provide a route of entry for petroleum hydrocarbons and bacteria. Immediately wash the area of exposure with soap and water. If oil contacts an individual’s eye, flush the eye with water for fifteen minutes. Notify the supervisor and seek first aid. Wear appropriate gloves, safety glasses or goggles when handling oiled wildlife to minimize the risk of absorbing petroleum hydrocarbons.

3. Ingestion. Although this mode of exposure is unlikely in the rehabilitation center, ingesting significant quantities of petroleum hydrocarbons may cause nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Do not induce vomiting. Notify the supervisor and seek immediate medical attention.

Supervisor Responsibility

Supervisors are responsible for establishing safe procedures and for ensuring that the protective equipment needed to work with the chemicals is available. Supervisors must instruct their responders about possible hazards, safety precautions that must be observed, possible consequences of an accident, and procedures to follow if an accident does occur. The supervisor is required to enforce the proper use of protective equipment and the established safety practices.

It is the responsibility of wildlife responders and all who use International Wildlife Research facilities to understand the properties of the chemicals with which they will work and to follow all precautions that apply to each specific task.

Supervisors must instruct their personnel about the potential hazards involved in the work, proper safety precautions to follow, and emergency procedures to use if an accident should occur. To supplement the supervisor’s training, IWR will conduct training courses. In addition, material safety data sheets and safety information, including hazards, health effects, potential routes of exposure, proper handling precautions, and emergency procedures on specific chemicals, are available through the Responsible Safety Officer’s office.

Effects on Reproduction

Both men and women may be exposed to hazardous agents that can cause infertility or result in genetic damage that is passed on to offspring. These agents include components of petroleum hydrocarbons, alcohol, cigarette smoke, pharmaceuticals, and some of the thousands of different chemicals that are used in the home or workplace. Although many of these have been tested to determine whether they cause acute (immediate) effects on the body, few have been studied to see if they cause cancer (carcinogens), birth defects (teratogens), or genetic defects (mutagens). Even fewer have been studied to see if they can cause infertility, menstrual disorders, or other disorders relating to reproduction.

The primary path for hazardous substances to reach an unborn child is through the placenta. Scientists now believe that most chemical substances or drugs can cross this barrier with varying degrees of ease and enter the system of the developing fetus. Thus, many chemicals and drugs that enter a pregnant woman’s body (through breathing, swallowing, absorption through the skin, etc.) will eventually enter the mother’s blood circulation and find their way into the unborn child.

In general, the important questions of exactly how much of the toxic substance that enters the mother’s body will reach the fetus or what concentration the fetus can tolerate without harmful effects are not yet answered.

The fetus may be most vulnerable in the early weeks of pregnancy, but it is also at risk later in pregnancy. In light of the potential harm of workplace exposures to both a pregnant woman and her developing fetus, it is very important and required by International Wildlife Research policy for the woman to inform their supervisor of her pregnancy immediately.

Labels

All containers (including glassware, safety cans, plastic squeeze bottles) must have labels that identify their chemical contents. Labels should also contain information on the hazards associated with the use of the chemical. Precautionary labels are available from your supervisor for most of the common chemicals.

Chemical Storage

The separation of chemicals (solids or liquids) during storage is necessary to reduce the possibility of unwanted chemical reactions caused by accidental mixing. Use either distance or barriers (e.g., trays) to isolate chemicals into the following groups:

  • Flammable liquids (e.g., acetone, benzene, ethers, alcohols). Place in approved fire lockers.
  • Other liquids (e.g., chloroform, trichloroethane).
  • Acids (e.g., nitric, sulfuric, hydrochloric, perchloric). * Treat acetic acid as a flammable liquid.
  • Bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide).

    • Chemicals must not be stored in the same refrigerator used for food storage. Refrigerators used for storing chemicals must be appropriately identified by placing a label on the door (labels may be obtained from Responsible Safety Officer).

    Emergencies

    In case of an emergency, consider any of the following actions if appropriate:

    • Evacuate people from the area.
    • Isolate the area.
    • If the material is flammable, turn off ignition and heat sources.
    • Call the Fire Department or 911 for assistance.
    • Wear appropriate personal protective equipment.
    • Clean up; place waste in plastic bag for disposal.

    Disposal of Chemicals

    All wildlife responders using hazardous chemicals are responsible for disposing of these chemicals safely.
    Federal and state regulations mandate strict disposal procedures for chemicals. To comply with these regulations, all persons using IWR facilities must observe these procedures.

    In general the disposal of hazardous chemicals into the sanitary sewer is not permitted. Your supervisor will advise on the proper disposal of chemical wastes.

    In using chemical waste storage containers, certain procedures must be observed, as listed below:

    Incompatible chemicals must not be mixed in the same container (e.g., acids should not be mixed with bases; organic liquids should not be mixed with strong oxidizing agents).

    The following requirements must be met as a condition for pickup and disposal of chemicals:

    Dry materials (gloves, wipes, pipettes, etc.) must be securely contained in plastic bags and over packed in a cardboard box.

    Packages that are wet or have sharp protruding objects will not be accepted for pick up.

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Cryogenic Fluids

Properties

Handling cryogenic fluids safely is largely a matter of knowing their properties and using common sense procedures based on that knowledge. In the rehabilitation center, the most common cryogenic fluid will be liquid nitrogen used to preserve biological specimens. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling points below -73.3°C.

Safety Practices

During operation with liquid nitrogen, personnel must observe the following safety practices:

Liquid nitrogen containers (dewars) must be safety vented and protected against mechanical shock and damage. Glass dewars must be wrapped with fabric or fiber-glass tape, or otherwise protected to prevent flying glass in the event of breakage.

Proper transfer equipment must be used when moving liquid nitrogen from one container to another.

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Emergencies

Organization

International Wildlife Research requires that during every emergency an organized effort be made to protect personnel from further injury and to minimize property damage.

Each supervisor must know what to do during an emergency in his or her area and must be certain that his or her responders understand their roles.

Supervisors Responsibilities

During an emergency, the supervisor must:

  • Ensure that those under his or her supervision are familiar with the plan for the building, particularly the recommended exit routes and how to report an emergency.
  • Render assistance to the person in charge during an emergency, as required
  • Maintain familiarity with the shutdown procedures for all equipment used by those under his or her supervision.
  • Know the location and use of all safety equipment on his or her floor.
  • Keep wildlife responders from reentering an evacuated area until reentry is safe.

Wildlife Responder Responsibilities

  • Workers, other than emergency-response groups, involved in any emergency greater than a minor incident are expected to act as follows:
  • If there is threat of further injury, remove all injured persons, if possible, and leave the immediate vicinity. If there is no threat of further injury or exposure, leave seriously injured personnel where they are.
  • Report the emergency immediately by phone. State what happened, the specific location, whether anyone was injured, and your name and phone number.
  • Proceed with first aid or attempt to control the incident only if you can do so safely and have been trained in first aid or the emergency response necessary to control the incident.
  • Show your supervisor where the incident occurred, inform him or her of the hazards associated with the area, provide any other information that will help avoid injuries, and do as he or she requests.

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Fire Safety

Fire Department

The Fire Department is responsible for protecting people and property from fires, explosions, and other hazards through prevention and expeditious control of such events. In addition, the Fire Department provides first-response rescue and transportation services in medical emergencies.

The Fire Department’s inspection staff is responsible for ensuring compliance with fire safety and protection requirements and for reviewing all plans and procedures for compliance with these requirements; for inspecting and testing automatic fire protection and alarm systems and ensuring their maintenance and repair; for conducting fire safety and protection inspections; and for providing fire prevention recommendations. Other responsibilities include training responders in fire safety equipment, practices, and procedures.

All these fire protection and response functions are performed in conformance with OSHA regulations, State law, International Wildlife Research policies, and nationally recognized standards and guidelines for fire and life safety. The Fire Chief and the Fire Marshall have the authority to enforce applicable requirements of the Uniform Building Code; the Uniform Fire Code; National Fire Protection Association Codes (including the Life Safety Code), Standards, and Recommended Practices; and the fire protection provisions of OSHA Orders.

All wildlife responders must immediately report fires, smoke, or potential fire hazards to the Fire Department (dial 911).

All responders must conduct their operations in such a way as to minimize the possibility of fire. This means applying rules such as keeping combustibles separated from ignition sources and avoiding needless accumulations of combustible materials.

Supervisors are responsible for keeping their operating areas safe from fire. The Fire Department will provide guidance and construction criteria with respect to fire and life safety as well as inspections. The provision and maintenance of fire detection systems and both automatic and manual fire extinguishing equipment is the responsibility of Alyeska Pipeline Service Company. But the supervisor, who best knows the day-to-day nature of his/her operations, is responsible for notifying the IWR management of operations that change the degree of fire risk and will therefore require a change in the planned fire protection provisions.

Class A Combustibles

Class A combustibles are common materials such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber, plastics, etc.

Fires in any of these fuels can be extinguished with water as well as other agents specified for Class A fires. They are the most common fuels to be found in non-specialized operating areas of the work place such as offices.

Safe handling of Class A combustibles means:

  • Disposing of waste daily.
  • Keeping work area clean and free of fuel paths, which can spread a fire, once started.
  • Keeping combustibles away from accidental ignition sources.
  • Keeping all rubbish, trash, or other waste in receptacles with tight-fitting covers when in or adjacent to buildings. (Exception: wastebaskets of metal or of other material and design approved for such use, which are emptied each day, need not be covered.)
  • Making frequent inspections and checks for noncompliance with these rules in order to catch fires in the potential stage.

Class B Combustibles

Class B combustibles are flammable and combustible liquids and flammable gases.

The use of water to extinguish Class B fires (by other than trained firefighters) can cause the burning liquid to spread carrying the fire with it. Flammable-liquid fires are usually best extinguished by excluding the air around the burning liquid. Generally, this is accomplished by using one of several approved types of fire-extinguishing agents, such as the following:

  • Carbon dioxide
  • ABC multipurpose dry chemical
  • Halon 1301 (used in built-in, total-flood systems)
  • Halon 1211 (used in portable extinguishers)
  • Fires involving flammable gases are usually controlled by eliminating the source of fuel, i.e., closing a valve.

NOTE: The flash point of a liquid is the minimum temperature at which it gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the surface of the liquid or within the vessel used.

It is the responsibility of the user to ensure that all Class B combustibles are properly identified, labeled, handled, and stored. If assistance is required, contact the Responsible Safety Office. Safe handling of Class B combustibles means:

  • Using only approved containers, tanks, equipment, and apparatus for the storage, handling, and use of Class B combustibles.
  • Making sure that all containers are conspicuously and accurately labeled as to their contents.
  • Storing, handling, and using Class B combustibles only in approved locations, where vapors cannot reach any source of ignition, including heating equipment, electrical equipment, oven flame, mechanical or electrical sparks, etc.
  • Never cleaning with flammable liquids within a building.
  • Never storing, handling, or using Class B combustibles in or near exists, stairways, or other areas normally used for egress.
  • In rooms or buildings, storing flammable liquids in excess of 10 gallons in approved storage cabinets or special rooms approved for the purpose.
  • Knowing the locations of the nearest portable fire extinguishers rated for Class B fires and how to use them.
  • Never creating heat that could ignite vapors near any Class B combustibles.

Fire Exits

Staff members should be familiar with the emergency exits and the locations of fire extinguishers.

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Gases

Introduction

This chapter contains guidelines and requirements for the safe use of compressed gases. It covers the use high-pressure gas cylinders.

Hazards

All gases must be used in a manner that will not endanger personnel.

Hazards associated with handling and use high-pressure gases include the following:

  • Injuries caused by flying objects accelerated by an explosion or pressure release;
  • Secondary accidents such as falls or electrical shocks;

Relief Valves Required

All systems, system components, and piping subject to over-pressures must be equipped with relief devices.

Cylinders

Only cylinders meeting Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations may be used for transporting compressed gases.

Each cylinder must bear the required DOT label for the compressed gas contained, except under certain specified conditions set forth in DOT regulations.

It is illegal to remove or to change the prescribed numbers or other markings on cylinders – do not deface, cover, or remove any markings, labels, decals, or tags applied or attached to the cylinder by the supplier.

Each cylinder must carry a legible label or stencil identifying the contents.

Do not repaint cylinders unless authorized by the owner.

Compressed-gas containers must not contain gases capable of combining chemically, nor should the gas service be changed without approval.

Cylinder Handling

Compressed gases should be handled only by experienced and properly instructed personnel. When in doubt about the proper handling of a compressed gas cylinder or its contents, consult your supervisor.

Compressed gas cylinders are dangerous when handled incorrectly.

Always assume that a cylinder is pressurized. Handle it carefully.

Never throw, bang, tilt, drag, slide, roll, or drop a cylinder from a truck bed or other raised surface.

If a cylinder must be lifted manually, at least two people must do the lifting.

Because of their shape, smooth surface, and weight, gas cylinders are difficult to move by hand. A truck or an approved cylinder handcart must always be used to move a cylinder.

If damaged, a cylinder can cause severe injuries, including lung damage from inhalation of toxic contents and physical trauma from explosion.

A pressurized gas cylinder can become a dangerous projectile if its valve is broken off.

When a cylinder is not connected to a pressure regulator or a manifold, or is otherwise not in use, it is extremely important that the cylinder valve be kept closed and the safety cap be kept in place-the cap protects the cylinder valve (do not lift cylinders by their caps).

Cylinders containing compressed gases should not be subjected to a temperature above 125 degrees F. Flames must never come in contact with any part of a compressed gas cylinder, pressure apparatus, hoses, etc.

Do not place cylinders where they might become part of an electric circuit.

Never attempt to repair, alter, or tamper with cylinders, valves, or safety relief devices.

Working With Gases

Always identify the contents of a gas cylinder before using it. If a cylinder is not clearly labeled, alert your supervisor.

Before using a cylinder, be sure it is properly supported with two metal chains or the equivalent to prevent it from falling.

Keep removable keys or handles on valve spindles or stems while cylinders are in service.

Connections to piping, regulators, and other appliances should always be kept tight to prevent leakage. Where hose is used, it should be kept in good condition.

Before a regulator is removed from a cylinder, close the cylinder valve and release all pressure from the regulator.

Before returning an empty cylinder, close the valve and replace the cylinder-valve protective cap and outlet cap or plug, if used.

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Seismic Safety

Wildlife Responder Responsibility

Each worker is responsible for the seismic safety of any equipment he or she brings in to the work area. Such things as book cases and heavy items must be securely fastened to the building. Also, shelves should be guarded to prevent falling objects. A bar or chain is recommended across all open shelving.

Miscellaneous Hazards

Earthquake safety measures have been developed to protect personnel in the event of a seismic disturbance. Sufficient protection is required to allow time for personnel to exit an endangered area without injury. All equipment, hardware, and objects inside and outside of buildings must be adequately restrained and/or anchored to ensure that they do not block escape routes during seismic ground motion.

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Traffic and Transportation

Accidents

Any accident involving IWR vehicles (included private, rented, or leased vehicles used on official IWR business) must be reported to the driver’s supervisor. If the driver is unable to make a report, another responder who knows the details of the accident must make the report.

Aviation

Air safety is a complex issue. Aircraft present many hazards to personnel, both as passengers and ground personnel. Spinning propellers and tail rotors are hazardous to personnel approaching or working around the aircraft.

Helicopters

When approaching or departing a helicopter, always establish visual contact with the pilot and proceed at the pilot’s signal. Remain within the pilot’s normal area of vision; never move towards the rear of the helicopter. Walk under blades in a crouched position. Blade tips may come within 5 feet (1.5 metres) of level ground.

NEVER walk up slope away from a helicopter, or down slope towards a helicopter.

Any loose articles of clothing must be properly secured before leaving the helicopter. Keep a tight grip on any loose items.

When traveling in a helicopter remain in your seat and do not change position while in flight.

Fasten seat belts.

The following precautions highlight some of the concerns that must be addressed:

  • No one will board or exit any aircraft unless directed by a pilot. Safe entry and exit procedures will always be followed, especially for helicopters. The pilot will provide a safety briefing.
  • Personal Flotation Devices (PFDs) are not required to be worn in aircraft, but sufficient PFDs must be provided for all on board.
  • Remember: The pilot is in charge.

Boats and Water

Response personnel working on or around boats are exposed to many risks. Special care should be taken to avoid injury when embarking, disembarking or handling lines.

Some Precautions include:

  • Wear a personal floatation device when in a boat or disembarking/embarking, or when around docking/mooring areas.
  • Handle ropes carefully.
  • Follow instructions of boat operators.
  • Stay clear of docking boats, particularly if it’s landing on the beach.
  • Under no circumstances are you allowed to operate a boat of any size unless trained.

Official Vehicle Use

International Wildlife Research requires that an operator hold a valid driver’s license for the class of vehicle that he/she is authorized to operate.

Responsibility

Each supervisor is responsible for restricting the use of Company-furnished vehicles to official IWR business only. They are also responsible for limiting use of such vehicles to properly authorized personnel.

Use of an official vehicle for a worker’s personal convenience or benefit constitutes misuse and is prohibited. Workers who misuse IWR vehicles are subject to dismissal.

All drivers of IWR vehicles are responsible for reporting any damage or deficiency. Repairs, adjustments, and maintenance can only be accomplished if the driver adequately documents and reports these items. Failure to report unsafe vehicle conditions can result in an accident.

Safety Belts

Responders operating or riding in company-furnished vehicles, or personal vehicles on official IWR business, are required to wear safety belts at all times. The driver should instruct the passengers to fasten their safety belts before operating the vehicle.

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Weather

When it comes to the weather, expect the unexpected. Difficult weather conditions include extreme cold and hot temperatures, as well as severe sea and wind conditions.

Cold Temperatures

Cold temperatures can cause injury in the form of chilblains, frostbite and hypothermia. It is therefore important to dress appropriately in cold temperatures and watch for early signs of cold injury in yourself and your co-workers. Warm clothing should be worn in foul weather conditions. A change of clothing is also recommended.

Chilblains

Chilblains is the least serious cold injury and is characterized by localized swelling, itching and painful redness of the exposed skin. The affected area should heal on its own when rewarmed.

Frostbite

Frostbite is caused by cold temperatures and results in injury to exposed skin or tissue. Areas affected by frostbite become white, gray or mottled white in the early stages. In later stages of frostbite the affected area looks white and waxy. If you notice anyone with signs of frostbite tell your supervisor or get medical attention immediately.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is lowering of the body’s core temperature which can cause injury and death. Onset is very rapid (approx. 20 minutes) if one falls into cold coastal water, but temperatures of 10°C (50°F) or lower can bring it on unless proper safeguards are taken, particularly in wet, windy conditions.

Wind Chill Factors

Wind chill factors can become extremely critical in the wet environment response personnel sometimes must work in. Warm protective clothing can become wet, rendering it ineffective. Adequate personal protective equipment is essential for reducing injury and increasing your chance of survival. Your supervisor will inform you of the appropriate protective clothing and equipment adequate for the risk of cold exposure.

Typical signs of cold exposure are:

  • Loss of concentration and confusion
  • Shivering
  • Complaints of feeling cold

High Temperatures

High temperatures can cause heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Differentiation between the two is usually easy, however, more than one condition may be present. Of the two, heat stroke is very serious and medical attention is required immediately at the onset of symptoms. If you notice any signs of heat exhaustion or heat stroke in yourself or co-workers, report immediately to your supervisor and get medical assistance.

Heat exhaustion is caused by water depletion or salt depletion. In either type of heat exhaustion, the bodies ability to sweat is maintained.

Some typical signs of heat exhaustion:

  • Nausea
  • Dizziness
  • Sweating, pale skin

Heat stroke or sunstroke is a life threatening medical emergency. It is caused by the body losing its ability to sweat.

Some typical signs of heat stroke (sunstroke):

  • Dry, hot flushed skin
  • Rapid pulse
  • High temperature
  • Muscular twitching

Sea and Wind Conditions

Sea and wind conditions are not uniform throughout coastal areas because of mountains, channels and other factors. Workers must be prepared for the forecast, and unexpected sea and wind conditions.

Buddy System

Keep an eye on yourself and your buddy. When necessary, stop work and take time to recover. Report all cold or heat exposure symptoms to your supervisor; others may be suffering the same problem.

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Chapter 6 – Introduction

The amphibious life history of pinnipeds and polar bears exposes them to spilled oil under circumstances not faced by sea otters. Their utilization of coastal and pack ice zones (which in many cases coincide with areas of hydrocarbon exploration, handling and transport) and the gregariousness of some pinnipeds, increase the potential for large scale impact. Furthermore, pinnipeds are a highly diverse group of mammals in terms of their global distribution, size, behavior, difficulty and risk of handling, and susceptibility to oil contamination. Any prediction of the impact on this group of animals must consider such variables as the type of oil involved, how much it has weathered, and the environmental conditions at the time. Light oil freshly spilled on a warm day is a threat to those breathing the vapors; heavy, weathered or residual oil in cold water is tenacious enough to restrict physical movement. In view of this, we caution against generalizing the findings of previous investigations. Rather, we encourage a thorough investigative approach to each new case to advance our ability to cope with inevitable future events.

The goal of this chapter is to provide workers with a practical framework for dealing with an oiled pinniped or polar bear. Oearly, the scope of potential scenarios of oil impact among these species is enormous. Our approach is to present a guide that must necessarily be tailored to meet local needs and animals. We assume that workers undertaking any such action will have a thorough knowledge of the life history and ecology of the species involved and the environmental and logistic conditions of the site. For a more detailed treatment of this subject, we refer readers to McLaren (1990) and St. Aubin (1990a) for pinnipeds and Stirling (1990) and St. Aubin (1990b) for polar bears.

We also provide a historical summary of oil spills involving the river otter, a fur-bearing mammal that may frequent coastal habitats. Information concerning the effects of oil contamination on this species is sparse. Therefore, we do not discuss the handling, cleaning, or treatment of oiled river otters. Readers are referred to Chapters 2 through 6 in this volume which address these topics for sea otters.

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A Brief Historical Perspective

Pinnipeds

The past four decades have seen at least twenty-nine encounters between pinnipeds and oil (St. Aubin, 1990a), although these have resulted in too few quantitative accounts to allow us to accurately predict the impact. Large scale mortality has rarely been observed, but oil has clearly been implicated in some deaths.

Many of the reports have been anecdotal and do not specify the number of animals or species involved. Despite large numbers of seals being affected, such as 10,000-15,000 harp seals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1969 (Warner, 1969) and approximately 650 gray and harbor seals following the Arrow oil spill in Chedabucto Bay in 1970 (Anonymous, 1971), little, if any, follow-up work has been done that quantitatively links mortality in marine mammals with exposure to spilled oil. An exception to this is the behavioral, histological, and toxicological study of pinnipeds following the Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS) (Loughlin, 1994).

Still less is known about the best approach to deal with oiled pinnipeds. Indeed, in one small study conducted on oiled gray seals on the coast of Wales in 1974, the authors concluded that the disturbance caused by cleaning was probably more damaging to the pups’ chances of survival than the oil itself (Davis and Anderson, 1976). During the EVOS, eighteen harbor seal pups were brought to rehabilitation centers in Alaska for cleaning. Although covered with crude oil, few medical problems were encountered and the seals were eventually released (Williams and Davis, 1990). In view of this, wildlife experts questioned the relative benefits of placing oiled seal pups in rehabilitation centers when important maternal bonds are broken (Williams et aI., 1994).

Laboratory studies on the effects of oil have been conducted only on ringed and harp seals (Smith and Geraci, 1975; Geraci and Smith, 1976). Such experiments are limited by public attitudes that consider them inhumane and unnecessary, and studies have been restricted to small sample sizes. Furthermore, the results of laboratory studies may be biased by stress associated with handling and captivity.

Most species of pinnipeds are sufficiently dispersed and their populations robust enough to preclude devastation by a single oiling event. Yet some, such as the Mediterranean monk seal, could be significantly affected. Their declining population of less than 1000 animals exists as several localized stocks that are highly vulnerable to oil. It is therefore imperative to gain experience while dealing with less threatened species to direct treatment of those that are most at risk.

Polar bears

The literature offers no information on the fate of bears exposed to oil in their natural environment (St. Aubin, 1990b). No major spill has occurred when bears have been present, and there are only anecdotal accounts of bears biting cans of oil or fuel storage bladders, without obvious immediate effect. Nevertheless, opportunities for contact exist throughout most of the polar bear’s range, where petroleum resources are being exploited and oil is transported and stored. Their life history and behavior also conspire to draw polar bears into contact with oil (Stirling, 1990), and it is conceivable that field workers might yet have to deal with a dozen or more bears fouled after encountering a contaminated lead.

River Otters

River otters that frequent marine habitats have been involved in several recent oil spills. This species appears vulnerable to the direct effects of oil exposure, as well as indirect effects associated with habitat contamination. The impact of oil on this species may be underestimated because river otters often return to holts following contamination.

In 1978 following a spill of Bunker C fuel from the Esso Bemicia, fourteen carcasses and eighteen live oiled otters from a population of European river otters (Lutra lutra) in the Shetlands were found (Richardson, 1979). Necropsy examination of five oiled carcasses revealed congested lungs, hemorrhagic gastroenteropathy, and a mixture of oil and blood in the intestines resulting from ingestion of oil during grooming (Baker et al., 1981). In comparison, no river otter deaths could be directly attributed to oil during the 1993 Braer spill, which also occurred along the Shetland coastline a. Conroy, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Banchory Research Station, Scotland, personal communication). Long-term studies concerning the chronic effects of this spill are currently being conducted.

Behavioral and physiological effects have been reported for river otters (Lutra canadensis) within the spill area of the EVOS. River otters from contaminated sites showed: 1) an increase in plasma haptoglobin (an indicator of physiological stress), 2) a decrease in body mass, 3) larger home ranges, and 4) a more restricted diet than otters living in uncontaminated areas (Bowyer et al., 1993; Duffy et al., 1993). Oil related mortality and population differences between contaminated and noncontaminated sites were considered, but could not be determined due to the relatively small sample size of the studies (W. Testa, University of Alaska, personal communication).