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Summary

The highest incidence of medical problems in sea otters will occur when oil is most toxic during the first three weeks or Early Phase of a catastrophic spill. The rehabilitation team should be prepared to treat animals with pulmonary distress, hypoglycemia, and thermal insta- bility during this phase. As the oil toxicity declines, fewer medical problems are encountered. During the Late Phase, the team should consider the benefits of stabilization periods for animals arriving at the facility. As the degree of external and internal oiling decreases, preparations for halting capture should be considered, as the stress of captivity will eventually exceed the benefits of rehabilitation.

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Literature Cited

Costa, D. P.1982. Energy, nitrogen, and electrolyte flux and seawater drink- ing in the sea otter, Enhydra lutris. Physiological Zoology 55 (1): 35-44.

Geraci, J. R., and V. J. Lounsbury. 1993. Marine mammals ashore: A field guide for strandings. Galveston: Texas A%26M Sea Grant.

Klaassen, C. D., and D. L. Eaton. 1991. “Principles of toxicology.” In Toxicology: The basic science of poisons. M. O. Amdur, J. Doull, and C. D. Klaassen, eds., 12-49. New York: Pergamon Press.

Mulcahy, D., and B. Ballachey. 1993. “Hydrocarbon concentrations in tissues of sea otters collected following the Exxon Valdez oil spill.” In Abstracts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill symposium. Anchorage, Alaska, Feb. 2-5, 1993: 293- 295.

Neff, J. M. 1990. “Composition and fate of petroleum and spill-treating agents in the marine environment.” In Sea Mammals and oil: Confronting the risks. J. R. Geraci and D. J. St. Aubin, eds., 1-33. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.

St. Aubin, D. J. 1990. “Physiologic and toxic effects on polar bears.” In Sea mammals and oil: Confronting the risks. J. R. Geraci and D. J. St. Aubin, eds., 235-39. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.
Williams, T. M. 1990. Evaluating the long term effects of crude oil exposure in sea otters. Wildlife Journal 13 (3): 42-48.

Williams, T. M., and R. W. Davis. 1990. Sea otter rehabilitation program: 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. Report to Exxon Company, USA. International Wild- life Research.

Williams, T.M., R. A. Kastelein, R. W. Davis, and J. A. Thomas. 1988. The effects of oil contamination and cleaning on sea otters (Enhydra lutris). I. Thermoregulatory implications based on pelt studies. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66 (12): 2776-81.

Williams, T.M., J. McBain, R.K. Wilson, and R.W. Davis. 1990.”Clinical evaluation and cleaning of sea otters affected by the T/V Exxon Valdez oil spill”. In Sea otter symposium: Proceedings of a symposium to evaluate the response effort on behalf of sea otters after the T/V Exxon Valedz oil spill into Prince William Sound, Anchorage Alaska, 17-19 April 1990. K Bayha and J. Kormendy, eds. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 90 (12): 236-57.

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Chapter 4 – Introduction

During an oil spill, large numbers of sea otters may arrive simultaneously at rehabilitation centers. Because facilities and veterinary personnel often are not equipped to handle more than five oiled animals at one time, it becomes necessary to develop a quick, straightforward system for evaluating animals and establishing priorities for treatment. This chapter presents criteria for evaluating large numbers of animals and for developing a triage program during a large scale emergency. Two types of large spills are considered, a short-term event such a tanker spill and a long-term event as occurs with an oil platform blowout.

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Triage for Oiled Wildlife

A triage program allows the rehabilitation team to classify and treat contaminated wildlife in a systematic manner. If all members of the team are familiar with the criteria or priorities, it provides the basis for providing the best care for the largest number of animals. Some animals may require immediate lifesaving procedures, while others may benefit from a period of stabilization. Critically ill animals with little chance of survival may create an unreasonable demand on veterinary resources. In these cases, euthanasia should be considered.

It is the responsibility of the rehabilitation team to assign treatment priorities for the different categories of contaminated wildlife. The triage system described here was developed for subadult and adult animals. Because sea otter pups require specialized care, they should be directed to nursery areas for immediate, full-time attention (see Chapter 9). The criteria used for ranking adult animals in different triage categories are based on: 1) toxicity of the oil encountered, 2) degree of external oiling, 3) stability of the animal, and 4) general medical condition.

Factors for determining these criteria are presented in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. The condition of each otter arriving at rehabilitation centers depends on many unknown factors, such as the duration of oil exposure and the animals’ general health before the spill. However, triage criteria necessarily are limited to physiological and behavioral assessments of the animal once it arrives at the center.

For evaluating adult otters, we recommend the five-category triage rating system established for the treatment of war casualties (Bowen and Bellamy, 1988): 1) urgent, 2) immediate, 3) delayed, 4) minimal, or 5) expectant.

Urgent

Animals in this category require urgent intervention to prevent continued contamination or death. Their survival will depend on quick and efficient treatment. Heavily oiled otters contaminated early in the spill are placed in this category. The primary goal is to remove oil quickly and to avoid systemic contamination due to dermal absorption, inhalation, or ingestion during grooming. Fresh crude oil often irritates the otters’ sensitive membranes; excessive biting and scratching can lead to permanent damage of the cornea and interdigital webbing of the flippers. Animals displaying hypoglycemic shock and hypothermia fall within this category regardless of the spill phase. Treatments include washing (Chapter 6) and immediate medical attention (Chapter 5). Rewarming hypothermic animals, cooling hyperthermic ones, and administering fluids are indicated when appropriate. If presented with several animals in this category, animals displaying emergency medical conditions should be treated first.

Immediate

This group requires immediate washing and treatment of minor medical problems. Usually, survivorship is high if treatment is quick. Heavily oiled animals contaminated late in a spill and showing few medical abnormalities fall into this category. Also, moderately oiled animals captured during all phases of the spill, and animals showing moderate respiratory distress, mild hypoglycemia, or hypothermia require immediate attention. These animals are temporarily stable and tolerate short waiting periods as long as they are supervised. They should await treatment in thermal environments that allow them to maintain normal body temperatures and do not induce panting or shivering. Because of complications associated with anesthetic agents (Chapter 3), they should not be fed unless treatment is delayed for more than three hours.

Delayed

These animals can tolerate and will probably benefit from a period of rest before treatment. Moderately oiled otters contaminated late in the spill and showing no clinical or behavioral signs of distress should be placed in the delayed category. Other animals in this category include lightly oiled or unoiled otters with minor clinical signs (periodic agitation or shivering, etc.). These animals often will accept food; food, water, and rest are recommended while they await treatment. The period of stabilization can range from twelve to twenty-four hours with little adverse effect. These animals are treated after Urgent and Immediate Care animals are handled.

Minimal

Animals in this category require minimal or no cleaning and often only require a general physical examination. A stabilization period of twenty-four to thirty-six hours is recommended. Food and water should be offered to alert animals every three hours throughout this period. The animals must be supervised during stabilization. Tests may be necessary to determine if the fur is oiled; treatment and washing will be based on the results of these tests. If the results for oiling are negative and the veterinary staff has determined that the animal is healthy, then we recommend moving these animals quickly to long-term holding areas. Lightly oiled and unoiled otters showing no clinical signs of distress comprise this category.

Expectant

This category includes all animals that behaviorally and clinically have little expected chance of survival. They should be made comfortable during a brief period of observation. The primary criteria for placement in this category is severe subcutaneous emphysema as determined by palpation. Usually the condition is irreversible and is associated with other severe medical conditions. During the Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS), otters with subcutaneous emphysema that displayed diaphragmatic and agonal breathing rarely survived twenty-four hours in the rehabilitation center. A veterinarian should be consulted to determine if euthanasia is the most humane alternative for animals in this category.

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Short-Term versus Long-Term Spills

The assignment of animals to one of the five triage categories will change with the phase and type of spill. In a catastrophic spill, oil is released in a single event and degrades relatively uniformly with time. As a result, the degree of contamination and the associated medical problems of wildlife decline with time and subsequent weathering of the oil. This was observed for sea otters following the EVOS (Table 11.1). The highest percentage of urgent care animals arrived during the first three weeks of the spill. Later in the spill, a greater proportion of animals required only minimal care.

Chronic spills, such as oil platform blowouts and incidents like the Persian Gulf spill, involve the long-term release of fresh oil into the environment. A consequence of chronic spills is prolonged contamination of wildlife by oil containing the highest concentrations of aromatic compounds. Because these compounds are considered the most toxic components of oil, a chronic spill may lead to a prolonged, high incidence of medical problems. Triage will be more difficult during a chronic spill because most animals will require urgent or immediate care until the release of oil is stopped.

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Summary

A triage program provides a systematic approach for sorting large numbers of contaminated wildlife for medical care. This program depends on the phase and type of oil spill. During spills of short duration, Early (less than three weeks post spill) and Late (more than three weeks post spill) Phases are easily distinguished. In contrast, the distinction between phases of a chronic spill will be more nebulous and will depend on several factors including the duration of oil release. For either type of spill, the greatest number of urgent care animals arrive during the Early Phase. The Late Phase is characterized by increased numbers of animals requiring minimal care.

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Literature Cited

Bowen, T. E., and R. F. Bellamy. 1988. Emergency war surgery. Washington, D.C: United States Government Printing Office.

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Injury And Illness Prevention Program

Introduction

International Wildlife Research makes the safety and health of our wildlife responders the first consideration in operating an oiled wildlife rehabilitation program. Safety and health must be a part of every operation, and every responder’s responsibility at all levels. It is the intent of International Wildlife Research to comply with all laws concerning the health and safety of our workers and the public. To do this, we must constantly be aware of conditions in all work areas that can produce or lead to injuries. No worker is required to perform a job known to be unsafe or dangerous to their health. Your cooperation in detecting hazards, reporting dangerous conditions and controlling workplace hazards encouraged. Inform your supervisor immediately of any situation beyond your ability or authority to correct.

Safety First Priority

The personal safety and health of each wildlife responder is of primary importance. Prevention of occupationally-induced injuries and illnesses is of such consequence that it will be given precedence over operating procedures. To the greatest degree possible, International Wildlife Research will provide protective clothing and equipment for your personal safety and health, but our wildlife responders must bear primary responsibility for working safely. A little common sense and caution can prevent most accidents from occurring.

Individual Cooperation Necessary

To be successful, a safety and health program must embody proper attitudes towards injury and illness prevention on the part of supervisors and workers. It requires the cooperation in all safety and health matters. Only through such a cooperative effort can a safety program in the best interest of all be established and preserved.

Safety Rules for All Wildlife Responders

It is the policy of International Wildlife Research that everything possible will be done to protect you from accidents, injuries and/or occupational disease while on the job. Safety is a cooperative undertaking requiring an ever-present safety consciousness on the part of every worker, especially when handling wild animals. If a worker is injured, positive action must be taken promptly to see that the he or she receives adequate treatment. All operations must be planned to prevent accidents. To carry out this policy, the following rules will apply:

1. All workers shall follow the safe practices and rules contained in this manual and such other rules and practices communicated on the job. All workers shall report all unsafe conditions or practices to their supervisor.
2. The Operations Supervisor shall be responsible for implementing these policies by insisting that workers observe and obey all rules and regulations necessary to maintain a safe work place and safe work habits and practices.
3. Good housekeeping must be practiced at all times in the work area. Clean up all waste and eliminate any dangers in the work area.
4. Suitable clothing and footwear must be worn at all times. Personal protection equipment (coveralls, rubber boots, gloves, eye protection) will be worn whenever needed.
5. Anyone under the influence of intoxicating liquor or drugs, including prescription drugs which might impair motor skills and judgment, shall not be allowed on the job.
6. Horseplay, scuffling, and other acts which tend to have an adverse influence on safety or well-being of other workers are prohibited.
7. Work shall be well planned and supervised to avoid injuries in the handling of animals and equipment.
8. No one shall be permitted to work while their ability or alertness is so impaired by extreme fatigue, illness, or other causes that it might expose them or others to injury.
9. There will be no consumption of liquor or beer on the job.
10. All injuries should be reported to the Operations Supervisor so that arrangements can be made for medical or first aid treatment.
11. When lifting heavy objects, use the large muscles of the leg instead of the smaller muscles of the back.
12. Do not throw things, especially material and equipment. Dispose of all waste properly and carefully.

Agreement to Participate

The information in this manual constitutes a written injury and illness prevention program. While International Wildlife Research cannot anticipate every workplace hazard, the following general principals should guide your conduct. To be safe, you must never stop being safety conscious.

Study the guidelines contained in this manual. Discuss the workplace situation with the Operations Supervisor. Attend all training meetings. Read all posters and warnings. Listen to instructions carefully. Follow the Code of Safe Work Place Practices contained herein. Participate in accident investigations as requested. Accept responsibility for the safety of others. Maintain all required documentation.

Training

Worker safety training is an essential requirement of an effective injury and illness prevention program. While International Wildlife Research believes in skills training, we also want to emphasize safety training. All wildlife responders should start the safety training by reading this manual and discussing any problems or safety concerns with your direct supervisor. You may wish to make notes in the margins of this manual where it applies to your work.

Safety and Health Training

Training is one of the most important elements of any injury and illness prevention program. Such training is designed to enable responders to learn their jobs properly, bring new ideas to the workplace, reinforce existing safety policies and put the injury and illness prevention program into action.

Training is required for both supervisors and workers alike. The content of each training session will vary, but each session will attempt to teach the following:
a) the success of International Wildlife Research’s injury and illness prevention program depends on the actions of individual wildlife responders as well as a commitment by IWR.
b) each responder’s immediate supervisor will review the safe work procedures unique to that worker’s job, and how these safe work procedures protect against risk and danger.
c) each wildlife responder will learn when personal protective equipment is required or necessary, and how to use and maintain the equipment in good condition.
d) each worker will learn what to do in case of emergencies occurring in the workplace. Supervisors are also vested with special duties concerning the safety of workers. The supervisors are key figures in the establishment and success of International Wildlife Research’s injury and illness prevention program. They have primary responsibility for actually implementing the injury and illness prevention program, especially as it relates directly to the workplace. Supervisors are responsible for being familiar with safety and health hazards to which workers are exposed, how to recognize them, the potential effects of these hazards, and rules and procedures for maintaining a safe workplace. Supervisors shall convey this information to the workers at the workplace, and shall investigate accidents according to the accident investigation policies contained in this manual.

Smoking

Smoking is not allowed in the rehabilitation facility or associated facilities.

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General Code of Safe Work Practices

General Fire Safety

The fire department is acquainted with our facility, its location and specific hazards.

Fire doors and shutters should be unobstructed and protected against obstructions.

Portable fire extinguishers are provided in adequate number and type and are located throughout the facility. Fire extinguishers are mounted in readily accessible locations. Fire extinguishers are recharged regularly and the date of last inspection noted on their tags

Compressed Gas and Cylinders

Compressed gas cylinders must be equipped with means for connecting a valve protector device, or with a collar or recess to protect the valve.

Cylinders must be legibly marked to identify clearly the gas contained.

Compressed gas cylinders should be stored only in areas which are protected from external heat sources such as flame impingement, intense radiant heat, or high temperature lines. Cylinders must not be located or stored in areas where they will be damaged by passing or falling objects, or subject to tampering by unauthorized persons.

Cylinders must be stored or transported in a manner to prevent them from creating a hazard by tipping, falling or rolling. All cylinders containing liquefied fuel gas must be stored or transported in a position so that the safety relief device is always in direct contact with the vapor space in the cylinder. Valve protectors must always be placed on cylinders when the cylinders are not in use or connected for use. All valves must be closed off before a cylinder is moved, when the cylinder is empty, and at the completion of each job.

Environmental Controls

All wildlife responders must be aware of the hazards involved when working with chemicals and the remedies that need to be used when an accident does occur.

First aid and caution signs will be conspicuously posted so as to alert individuals on a constant basis.

Charts identifying the chemicals utilized in the workplace, their symptoms and effects must also be posted.

The responders must know what the acceptable level of exposure to a chemical is and what safety systems must be in place when working with a chemical.

Staff should ensure that facilities are adequately ventilated in the presence of oiled animals or when using chemicals.

Hazardous Substances Communication

When hazardous substances are used in the workplace, a hazard communication program dealing with Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), labeling and worker training will be in operation. MSDS materials will be readily available for each hazardous substance used.

The program will include an explanation of what an MSDS is and how to use and obtain one; MSDS contents for each hazardous substance or class of substances; explanation of the “Right to Know”; identification of where workers can see the employer’s written hazard communication program and where hazardous substances are present in their work area; the health hazards of substances in the work area, how to detect their presence, and specific protective measures to be used.

Material Handling

In the handling of materials, workers must know the following:

There must be safe clearance for equipment through aisles and doorways.

Aisle ways must be designated, permanently marked, and kept clear to allow unhindered passage.

Vehicles must be shut off and brakes must be set prior to loading or unloading.

Containers of combustibles or flammables, when stacked while being moved, must be separated by dunnage sufficient to provide stability.

Material Safety Data Sheets will be available to workers handling hazardous substances.

Infection Control

Technicians normally will handle cultures which contain animal specimens as blood or body fluids that carry infectious bacteria. The practices of a laboratory will include proper ventilation, emergency equipment, necessary protective clothing, refrigeration, hand-washing sinks, bio-hazard tags, labels, needle containers, detergents/disinfectants and a manual on emergency procedures in case of an accident. The training of the technician will include universal precautions, how to manage and handle a needle stick exposure, and how to dispose of these materials when finished with testing or evaluation.

The workplace must be equipped with the proper equipment to meet the safety precautions universally recognized by the state licensing agency. A general practice of cleaning and disinfecting the equipment and environment must be observed.

Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is your personal bodyguard to safety. PPE is designed to minimize exposure to oil, dirt, feces and urine; to prevent injury; and to prevent the transmission of diseases between husbandry staff and the sea otters. Some you can wear by personal choice, others you must wear. Your supervisor will inform you of what is required. Types of personal protective equipment that maybe worn are outlined below:

1. Work Clothing- The animal care staff should wear clean coveralls over their regular clothes to prevent contamination with animal food, feces and urine. Coveralls also will limit the introduction of domestic animal diseases into the rehabilitation center. Clean coveralls will be issued to each staff member at the beginning of a shift and laundered in the center after each use; they should not be taken home by the staff. Lockers will be provided for storing personal clothing and street shoes before work begins.

2. Rubber boots- The animal care staff should wear slip-resistant rubber boots that will keep their feet dry and protect them from injury. The boots should be kept in the rehabilitation center and the soles cleaned with a liquid disinfectant at the end of each shift. Maintaining clean footwear is essential for preventing the introduction of domestic animal diseases into the rehabilitation center.

3. Water-resistant Clothing- Water-resistant clothing (rain jackets and trousers) should be worn when cleaning oiled sea otters, moving animals between pens and pools, and during inclement weather. The rain gear will keep coveralls dry and prevent contamination with oil, feces and urine.

4. Gloves- Rubber gloves should be worn when cleaning oiled sea otters, assisting with medical procedures, preparing or handling sea otter food and whenever hands need protection from contact with oil, dirt, and feces. Wearing rubber gloves is especially important in preventing infection if a person has open sores or cuts on his or her hands. Heavy leather gloves should be worn when handling sea otters to protect hands from scratches and bites. Even though gloves are worn when working, hands should be washed at the end of each shift and before eating. Also, avoid touching anyone with gloved hands in case the gloves are contaminated.

5. Safety Glasses- Safety glasses should be worn whenever working with hazardous chemicals such as formalin and bleach. They will also protect eyes from detergent and oily water when washing oiled sea otters. Persons wearing contact lenses should also wear safety glasses, especially in the sea otter cleaning and drying rooms.

6. Hearing protection- Heariang protection may be required in high noise level areas such as around heavy equipment, aircraft, and internal combustion engines. These areas will be identified. Hearing protection minimizes harmful noise exposure, but also creates a need for greater visual attention.

7. Hard hats are required where there is a potential of being struck from above or striking something overhead, such as when working around and under piers and docks.

8. Personal Flotation Devices (PFDs) – PFDs must meet government standards and be labelled accordingly. PFD’s must be worn whenever there’s a risk of falling into water and in accordance to operating procedures.

Decontamination- Personnel involved in oiled wildlife response may have petroleum hydrocarbons, feces, urine and animal pathogens on their protective equipment which pose health risks to thmeselves and the animals. Decontamination, which includes cleaning, removing, and disposing of protective clothing, must be undertaken using standard operating procedures provided by the supervisor.

These contaminants must be removed after each shift. Assess your personal protective clothing to ensure that it is fully functional for the next shift. All unusable equipment or clothing must be returned to the response organization for replacement and inventory purposes.

Wear your personal protective equipment. Take good care of it, and it will take good care of you!

Work Environment, General

Work sites must be clean and orderly.

Work surfaces must be kept dry or appropriate means taken to assure the surfaces are slip-resistant.

Spills must be cleaned up immediately.

All combustible scrap, debris and waste must be stored safely and removed promptly.

Waste containers must be covered. Oily rags are combustible and should be discarded in sealable containers only.

All oil and gas fired devices should be equipped with flame failure controls that will prevent flow of fuel if pilots or main burners are not working. Ask your supervisor where these controls are located.

Make sure all pits and floor openings are either covered or otherwise guarded.

Walkways

All aisles and passageways must be kept clear. Also, aisles and passageways should be clearly marked.

Wet surfaces must be covered with non-slip material and all holes properly covered or marked with warning guards.

All spills must be cleaned up immediately, and a caution sign placed on all wet or drying surfaces.

In cases of passageways used by forklifts, trucks or other machinery, use a separate aisle for walking, if available. If no separately marked aisle is available, use extreme caution. Remember, walking in a passageway used by machinery is like walking in the middle of a street used by cars: You may have the right of way, but the heavier vehicle can’t always see you and can’t always stop in time. The key to moving around in such circumstances is to stop, look and listen and then to move when there is no danger. Make eye contact with the drivers of moving vehicles so that you know that they know you are there.

Equipment must be properly stored so that sharp edges do not protrude into walkways. Changes in elevations must be clearly marked. If there is a low ceiling, a warning sign must be posted. If the walkway or stairway is more than thirty inches above the floor or ground, it must have a guardrail.

If a worker is aware of any breach of these standards, please inform your supervisor.

Driving

Drive safely. If vehicles are used during the work day, seat belts and shoulder harnesses are to be worn at all times.

Vehicles must be locked when unattended to avoid criminal misconduct.

Do not exceed the speed limit.

Vehicles must be parked in legal spaces and must not obstruct traffic.

Defensive driving must be practiced by all responders.

Combustible Materials

All combustible scrap, debris and waste materials (oily rags, etc.) must be stored in covered receptacles and removed from the work site promptly.

Proper storage to minimize the risk of fire, including spontaneous combustion must be practiced.

Only approved containers and tanks are to be used for the storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids.

Liquefied petroleum gas must be stored, handled, and used in accordance with safe practices and standards.

Liquefied petroleum storage tanks should be guarded to prevent damage from vehicles.

All solvent wastes and flammable liquids should be kept in fire-resistant, covered containers until they are removed from the work site.

Fire extinguishers are selected for the types of materials and placed in areas where they are to be used. These fire extinguishers are classified as follows:
Class A – Ordinary combustible materials fires.
Class B – Flammable liquid, gas or grease fires.
Class C – Energized-electrical equipment fires.

Appropriate fire extinguishers must be mounted within 75 ft. of outside areas containing flammable liquids, and within 10 ft. of any inside storage area for such materials.

All extinguishers must be serviced, maintained and tagged at intervals not to exceed one year.

Extinguishers should be placed free from obstructions or blockage. All extinguishers must be fully charged and in their designated places unless in use.

“NO SMOKING” rules will be enforced in the rehabilitation center.

First Aid Kits

A first aid kit for routine cuts and abrasions will be located in every room in the rehabilitation center. If someone is injured, their supervisor should be notified immediately.

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Biological Hazards

Definitions

By law, an infection control plan must be prepared by every person that handles, stores, uses, processes, or disposes of infectious medical wastes. This infection control plan complies with OSHA requirement, 29 CFR 1910.1030, Blood Borne Pathogens. The plan includes requirements for personal protective equipment, housekeeping, training, and a procedure for reporting exposures.

Biological Hazard

The term biological hazard or bio-hazard is taken to mean any viable infectious agent (etiologic agent) that presents a risk, or a potential risk, to the well being of humans. Each supervisor has identified the specific biological hazard associated with your job, and the supervisor will arrange for your training if necessary.

Medical Wastes/Infectious Wastes

All laboratory waste emanating from animal tissues, blood or blood products or fluids; all cultures of etiologic agents; specimens of animal parts or tissues removed by surgery, autopsy, or necropsy.

Zoonoses

Zoonoses are diseases transferable from animals to man. Wildlife carry various bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites, some of which are transmissible to humans. Although there are few diseases known to be transferred from marine mammals to humans, two common diseases are salmonellosis and general bacterial infections due to bites or scratches (i.e., “seal finger”). Salmonellosis may be caused from the accidental ingestion of fecal material from an infected animal and results in abdominal pains followed by severe diarrhea. Bacterial infections of the skin are caused by the exposure of open sores and cuts to bacteria in the animal’s fur, feces, saliva, or food. Both medical conditions should be treated immediately under the supervision of a physician.

Blood-borne pathogens are a concern when working with wildlife. These pathogens include salmonellosis and hepatitis. Although direct transmission from marine mammals to humans is very rare, animal caretakers should be aware of the potential danger. The best prevention is to wear gloves when handling the animals, avoid direct contact with animal blood and other fluids, and wash your hands after handling animals. Animal care staff should wash their hands before eating, at the end of their shift, and after contact with animal feces and urine.

General Procedures

The following procedures must be followed by personnel when in animal care areas and veterinarian laboratories:

  • All supervisors must ensure that their staff is trained in proper work practices, the concept of universal precautions, personal protective equipment, and in proper clean-up and disposal techniques.
  • Eating, drinking, smoking, applying cosmetics or lip balm, and handling contact lenses are prohibited in work areas where there is a potential for exposure to any health hazard.
  • Food and drink must not be stored in refrigerators, freezers, or cabinets where blood or other potentially infectious material is stored or in other areas of possible contamination.

In the clinical veterinary laboratory and necropsy laboratory, the following requirements apply:

  • Only authorized responders and visitors are permitted to enter.
  • Drinking fountains must be the sole source of drinking water for humans.
  • Lab coats must be worn whenever there is a possibility that body fluids could splash on skin or clothing.
  • Gloves must be made of appropriate disposable material, usually intact latex or vinyl. They must be used in the following circumstances:
    – When the responder has cuts, abraded skin, chapped hands, dermatitis, or similar conditions.
    – During instrumental examination of the otopharynx, gastrointestinal (G.I.) tract, and genitourinary (G.U.) tract.
    – While handling blood or blood products or other body secretions during routine laboratory procedures.

  • Responders must wash their hands immediately, or as soon as possible, after removal of gloves or other personal protective equipment and after hand contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials.
  • Contaminated laboratory clothing must not be worn in clean areas or outside the building.
  • All procedures involving blood or other potentially infectious agents must be performed in a manner that will minimize splashing, spraying, and aerosolization.
  • Persons who are ill, pregnant, taking drugs that suppress their resistance to disease, or under eighteen years of age should not work directly with wildlife.

Practicing good hygiene, using common sense, and staying healthy will minimize the risk of contacting diseases from wildlife.

Medical Wastes

Medical/infectious waste must be segregated from other waste at the point of origin.

Medical/infectious waste, except for sharps (i.e., razor blades, broken glass, needles, etc.) capable of puncturing or cutting, must be contained in double disposable red bags conspicuously labeled with the words “INFECTIOUS WASTE” and “BIO-HAZARD.”

Used needles or other sharps (razor blades, broken glass, scalpels, etc.) must not be sheared, bent, broken, recapped, or resheathed.

Infectious sharps must be contained for disposal in leakproof, rigid puncture-resistant containers.

Floors, laboratory benches, and other surfaces in buildings where infectious agents are handled must be disinfected with a suitable germicide, such as 1:9 solution of sodium hypochlorite solution (household bleach) as often as necessary as determined by the supervisor.

Stock solutions of suitable disinfectants must be maintained in each laboratory.